Unseen foot soldiers — how naïve nano influencers boost paid political campaigns

In the murky world of online political influence, seemingly unassuming nano influencers – often as the tools of high-profile anonymous mega influencers – are fuelling campaigns from the grassroots.

This investigation follows our previous two articles on the commodification of influence: Influence-for-Hire Trend is Distorting Public Discourse and The Powerful Hidden Hand of Anonymous Paid Influencers Who Lack Accountability and Transparency explored the creator economy and delved into the world of anonymous paid mega influencers.

Those articles highlighted how the rise of social media influencers has transformed the marketing and advertising industry. However, there are concerns about manipulating influence on social media platforms X (formerly Twitter), especially by often anonymous “mega influencers”. 

This article looks at mega influencers’ digital foot soldiers: the nano influencers. 

Often underestimated due to their smaller yet fiercely devoted followings, nano influencers are sometimes unwittingly drawn into the deceptive world of paid political agendas, inadvertently amplifying messages crafted by undisclosed puppeteers. 

Their authenticity and strong community connections make them the perfect tool, blurring the distinction between genuine advocacy and covert manipulation.

Many of these nano influencers are unaware of the manipulations behind the scenes and the potential consequences of their actions.

Despite this, nano influencers are protected by free speech rights, allowing them to express political opinions freely. Their participation in political campaigns is generally legal as long as they are not spreading false information or engaging in illegal activities. 

One nano influencer interviewed for this investigation expressed surprise at the idea that their posts could be used to manipulate public opinion. “I just wanted to share my opinions and connect with others,” he said. “I never thought my words, a post I liked or retweeted, could be used for something harmful.”

The transparency and accountability debate in the influencer industry is hot, especially since research from Nielsen, Reuters and other sources shows that people trust mega influencers. Social media users often get news from influencers rather than journalists. People also believe that brands are better positioned than governments to solve social issues. Furthermore, becoming an influencer is a top career aspiration for many young people.

A mega influencer we interviewed, who asked not to be named because he had contracts and signed non-disclosure agreements with several brands, said a lot of manoeuvring took place behind the scenes. 

He said he had a marketing company with several influencers, ranging from nano influencers (up to 1,000 followers) to micro (up to 100,000). A campaign can cost between R80,000 and R250,000. 

“I always demand payment upfront or at least half,” he said. “Once I receive the payment, I contact five other mega influencers on WhatsApp and tell them about the campaign. They then instruct their networks to make the campaign trend. 

“The real people who work hard to make the campaign trend are the nano influencers, who get paid R100 via e-wallet or airtime. After retweeting, the nano influencers post a screenshot on the WhatsApp group and get paid.” 

Influencer X, Diepkloof

In the bustling townships of Diepkloof, Soweto, where the digital divide is a daily reality, access to the internet is often a luxury, not a given. 

For many, an affordable way to access the internet is to sit close to community shopping malls. 

Some shops offer a gateway to the online world, thanks to free Wi-Fi. This is where we find Influencer X (real name not shared on request), a typical nano influencer whose story reflects the dreams and challenges of many in his community.

Influencer X had always been entrepreneurial. He dreamt of opening an internet café where locals could apply for jobs and connect with the world. But the venture didn’t take off as he had hoped. 

Faced with a failed business and too much idle time, he found comfort in X/Twitter, which was alive with conversation and potential. At the same time, Facebook felt stale, and Instagram seemed disconnected from his reality.

Armed with only a smartphone and a fast food chain’s Wi-Fi, Influencer X began to follow people, tweet and slowly build his online presence. His initial intent was purely personal, a way to stay connected. 

But as he delved deeper into the Twitterverse, he discovered the world of influencers – people paid to promote brands, causes and ideas. To Influencer X, this was a revelation. 

“There is nothing wrong with paid promotions; I admired the hustle because these influencers, whether anonymous or not, are merely capitalising on a new kind of work that doesn’t require fancy degrees or a nine-to-five grind,” he said.

As his follower count climbed, Influencer X started considering becoming an influencer. He was realistic, though, and knew that to reach the level of mega influencers, he needed to present a lifestyle that wasn’t his own. 

The flashy outfits, luxury goods and exotic locations didn’t fit his daily reality. But what he lacked in glitz, he made up for with authenticity. He tweets about soccer and TV shows and comments on social issues.  He admitted he followed popular anonymous mega accounts whose content often resonated with him, especially popular culture.

“I don’t want to be identified because I don’t want to trend for the wrong reasons and be trolled by people thinking I am criticising their hustle.” 

Influencer X also liked X because it kept him abreast of the news. “If I hear something, I first see if it is trending to verify if it is true. It doesn’t matter if the account is anonymous, but it has to be a big account for me to believe whatever they say.” 

Influencer Y, Vosloorus

We also spoke to Influencer Y, a woman based in Vosloorus, east of Johannesburg, who embraced X and used the platform to promote her side businesses – nails and wigs. With about 800 followers, she had set her sights on reaching 2,000, a milestone that, in the world of nano influencers, could start to attract serious attention. 

She was approached by a local TV influencer who offered her a small fee of R250 for participation in a campaign. If successful, she might receive more opportunities and perhaps even some coveted sponsorships, especially in the fashion industry.Her strategy was simple: stay active, engage with her followers, and use every opportunity to grow her brand. Unlike some in her community who waited for opportunities to come their way, she understood the importance of hustle. 

She said that in a good week, she spent more than R100 on social media data bundles to keep up with the latest trends.

“If someone offers me money to promote something legal or aligned with my beliefs, I will do it. I have often liked and retweeted stuff like on other social media,” she said. 

The role of nano influencers in political campaigns

Mega influencers often organise covert political campaigns using nano influencers as their frontline. Unaware of the larger strategy, these nano influencers receive crafted content or talking points to share. Their posts seem more genuine, coming from ordinary people rather than celebrities, making the message more persuasive. 

Identifying nano influencers in these campaigns can be challenging, but certain indicators can reveal if a nano influencer is participating in a campaign:

Mega influencers recruit nano influencers through various tactics, capitalising on their desire for growth, recognition and financial incentives. Modest payments of R100 or airtime can appeal to nano influencers, especially with the promise of future deals. Additionally, being associated with a mega influencer can boost their follower count and engagement, motivating them to participate. 

Our investigation also revealed that the paid influence world is a tight-knit network of friendships, allegiances and rivalries. When multiple nano influencers are involved, peer pressure can compel participation, with influencers afraid of missing out on opportunities or being left out of the community. 

Mega influencers also appeal to nano influencers’ values, such as supporting causes they believe in. Passionate nano influencers may unwittingly promote content that aligns with their beliefs but hides its true intent. This makes them vulnerable to legal action, as they often lack resources to protect themselves. Many may not realise they are being manipulated, or feel financially pressured to continue promoting the campaign.

All this makes nano influencers particularly vulnerable to legal action because they often lack the resources and knowledge to protect themselves. 

Why the public should be concerned

For several reasons, the public should be deeply concerned about using covertly paid influencers in political campaigns. 

The lack of transparency in these campaigns undermines the public’s ability to make informed decisions. If people are unaware that their content is part of a paid campaign, they are more likely to interpret it uncritically and potentially be swayed by it. 

Using nano influencers in this way can contribute to the spread of misinformation or disinformation. Influencers sharing content without fully understanding its context or accuracy might unintentionally disseminate false or misleading information, which can have serious consequences, particularly in elections or other political events. 

In addition, nano influencers in political campaigns can erode trust in the influencer economy. If followers feel that they cannot trust the content they see from their favourite influencers, they may disengage from the platform altogether. This could have a ripple effect, not just for the influencers themselves but for the brands and platforms that rely on them for marketing.

Most importantly though, at a societal level, influencers drive emotive content that sorts the public into us-vs-them echo chambers, heightening social divides. Strengthened echo chambers mean we trust out-group sources, the media and institutions less, and they undermine belief in democracy. 

As the shadowy paid influencer market continues to grow, it will be increasingly important to maintain a commitment to authenticity in influencer marketing and ensure that regulations keep pace with the rapidly changing landscape.

Awareness is crucial for the public, particularly considering that the influencer industry encompasses both entrepreneurship and exploitation, connection and harassment, truth and falsehood, self-expression and harm, encountering new ideas and finding comfort in familiar biases. DM  

Murmur is a specialist data consultancy that focuses on social media research.

Tabelo Timse is a freelance investigative journalist with a strong background in media. Her career includes notable positions such as her tenure at the amaBhungane Centre for Investigative Journalism and her role covering the SADC region for AFP, the Herald and SABC. Timse holds a master’s degree in journalism from Nelson Mandela University.

Kyle Findlay is a social media researcher focusing on social issues that affect democratic societies globally. He has a special interest in the role that influence operations play in fragmenting our societies.  

Dr Aldu Cornelissen is a researcher and data scientist with a special interest in natural language processing and social network analysis. He applies these skills to help his clients and research collaborators understand the complex conversations that happen on social media.

This investigation was funded by a grant from the Henry Nxumalo Foundation.